{"id":27269,"date":"2012-10-01T08:17:48","date_gmt":"2012-10-01T06:17:48","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/nabarralde.eus\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\/"},"modified":"2012-10-01T08:17:48","modified_gmt":"2012-10-01T06:17:48","slug":"small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/nabarralde.eus\/es\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\/","title":{"rendered":"Small is Beautiful &#8211; Lo Peque\u00f1o es Hermoso"},"content":{"rendered":"<p> <\/p>\n<p>El 11 de octubre de 1991, el Wall Street Journal public\u00f3 un hermoso art\u00edculo de Robert Barro sobre el tama\u00f1o de las naciones. Aunque se trataba de un art\u00edculo de prensa, se convirti\u00f3 en un art\u00edculo muy influyente, ya que result\u00f3 ser la obra fundamental sobre el que la literatura sobre el \u00abtama\u00f1o \u00f3ptimo de las naciones\u00bb creci\u00f3. El famoso art\u00edculo de Alesina y Spolaore (\u00abEl tama\u00f1o de las naciones\u00bb) es un descendiente directo de esta peque\u00f1a pieza de Barro (Alesina era y es colega de Barro en Harvard).<\/p>\n<p>Robert Barro es uno de los macroeconomistas m\u00e1s influyentes de la historia. \u00c9l es el economista m\u00e1s citado del mundo entre los economistas que a\u00fan no tienen el Premio Nobel.<\/p>\n<p>Y, para que conste y para aquellos que acusan a los analistas a perder sus sentidos y su capacidad de razonar cuando hablan de Catalu\u00f1a, Robert Barro no es catal\u00e1n.<\/p>\n<p>POR ROBERT J. BARRO<\/p>\n<p>El gobierno de EE.UU. se opone por instinto a la secesi\u00f3n. No ha apoyado a los kurdos en Irak, los croatas en Yugoslavia, a los Ibos en Nigeria o los quebequenses en Canad\u00e1. Fuimos m\u00e1s o menos el \u00faltimo gran pa\u00eds de firmar la soberan\u00eda de los estados b\u00e1lticos, y no apoyamos a ninguno de los movimientos de independencia de las rep\u00fablicas sovi\u00e9ticas.<\/p>\n<p>Parece que hay dos razones principales para esta oposici\u00f3n. La primera es el problema potencial de cambiar las fronteras. Incluso las fronteras que se trazaron de manera arbitraria en alg\u00fan momento en el pasado -como en Yugoslavia, Irak y gran parte de \u00c1frica- pueden ser defendidas razonablemente porque el proceso de cambio implica trastornos que pueden incluso llegar el conflicto b\u00e9lico. Claro que el intentar mantener unas fronteras insatisfactorias pueden causar trastornos incluso mayores.<\/p>\n<p>La intensa oposici\u00f3n del gobierno de EE.UU. a la secesi\u00f3n tambi\u00e9n refleja las especificidades de la historia americana. La Guerra Civil norteamericana -con mucho el conflicto m\u00e1s costoso jam\u00e1s librado por los estadounidenses- fue librada principalmente para mantener la uni\u00f3n. La guerra caus\u00f3 m\u00e1s de 600.000 v\u00edctimas mortales militares y un n\u00famero desconocido de civiles muertos y graves da\u00f1os a la econom\u00eda del sur. La renta per c\u00e1pita del Sur pas\u00f3 de representar el 80% de la del Norte antes de la guerra (utilizando los datos incompletos de 1840) a aproximadamente 40% despu\u00e9s del conflicto (basado en los datos m\u00e1s completos para 1880). La ca\u00edda en el ingreso per c\u00e1pita refleja la destrucci\u00f3n de capital, maquinaria y equipo, ganado y mano de obra educada as\u00ed como el fin del sistema de plantaci\u00f3n basada en el trabajo forzado.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Verdadero Costo de Guerra<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>La ca\u00edda de la renta per c\u00e1pita representa un costo real de la guerra pero m\u00e1s all\u00e1 de eso, el retroceso general de la econom\u00eda fue sorprendente: Se tard\u00f3 m\u00e1s de un siglo despu\u00e9s del fin de la guerra en 1865 para el Sur recuperara el nivel del 80% de la renta Norte. Este ritmo de convergencia del Sur pobre hacia el Norte rico puede parecer lento, pero es el ritmo t\u00edpico de los procesos de crecimiento regionales observados en otros tiempos y lugares.<\/p>\n<p>Si el gobierno de los EE.UU. apoyara el derecho de secesi\u00f3n de alguna otra parte del mundo, como por ejemplo la Uni\u00f3n Sovi\u00e9tica, entonces estar\u00eda cuestionando la premisa b\u00e1sica de la Guerra Civil. \u00bfPor qu\u00e9 es deseable que las rep\u00fablicas sovi\u00e9ticas tengan derecho de secesi\u00f3n, cuando no era conveniente que los estados de EE.UU. tuvieran ese mismo derecho en el siglo XIX? Si acept\u00e1ramos eso, tendr\u00edamos que replantearnos si los enormes costos que pagamos durante la guerra civil valieron la pena. En lugar de ser uno de los mejores presidentes de Estados Unidos, como mucha gente cree, Abraham Lincoln pasar\u00eda a ser el presidente que cometi\u00f3 el mayor error en la historia Americana.<\/p>\n<p>Todos habr\u00edamos salido ganando si, en lugar de a trav\u00e9s de una guerra, el fin de la esclavitud se hubiera conseguido comprando los esclavos a sus due\u00f1os -tal como los brit\u00e1nicos hicieron con los esclavos de las Indias Occidentales en la d\u00e9cada de 1830.<\/p>\n<p>Si dejamos de lado la experiencia de la Guerra Civil y nos olvidamos por el momento de los problemas de transici\u00f3n que tiene el trazar unas nuevas fronteras (es decir, si ignoramos por el momento el problema de la estabilidad), entonces la evaluaci\u00f3n de una secesi\u00f3n depende de la siguiente pregunta: <strong>si dibuj\u00e1ramos las fronteras lo m\u00e1s razonablemente posible partiendo de cero, \u00bfser\u00edan muy distintas a las que tenemos en la actualidad?<\/strong> Si lo hacemos as\u00ed veremos que <strong>algunos de los argumentos que se han utilizado para criticar a la desintegraci\u00f3n de los estados est\u00e1n equivocados<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Por ejemplo, <strong>a menudo se dice que un nuevo estado potencial es demasiado peque\u00f1o como para ser econ\u00f3micamente viable: La Georgia sovi\u00e9tica, Croacia, Quebec o Catalu\u00f1a, se dice, no sobrevivir\u00edan siendo independientes. La evidencia emp\u00edrica sobre el crecimiento econ\u00f3mico de los pa\u00edses contradice marcadamente esta visi\u00f3n<\/strong>. Los datos no muestran relaci\u00f3n entre el crecimiento del nivel de ingreso per c\u00e1pita y el tama\u00f1o de un pa\u00eds, tanto si se mide por la poblaci\u00f3n como si se mide por \u00e1rea. Los pa\u00edses peque\u00f1os, incluso con una poblaci\u00f3n de tan s\u00f3lo un mill\u00f3n, pueden funcionar bien econ\u00f3micamente, siempre y cuando se mantengan abiertas al comercio internacional. De hecho, el ser peque\u00f1o incentiva a ser m\u00e1s abierto al exterior porque la alternativa s\u00ed ser\u00eda realmente una econom\u00eda inviable.<\/p>\n<p>Un argumento especialmente falacioso e incorrecto es el que dice que un Estado no puede prosperar si carece de un recurso natural fundamental, como el petr\u00f3leo o la tierra f\u00e9rtil. Los datos revelan una nula relaci\u00f3n entre el crecimiento econ\u00f3mico y la presencia de recursos naturales. Por ejemplo, a Jap\u00f3n y los tigres asi\u00e1ticos, as\u00ed como la mayor parte de Europa occidental, les ha ido muy bien sin recursos naturales. Con el acceso a los mercados internacionales, un pa\u00eds puede especializarse en lo que hace bien y luego comercializar sus mercanc\u00edas a los productos b\u00e1sicos, como el petr\u00f3leo o los productos agr\u00edcolas, de los que carece.<\/p>\n<p>Una caracter\u00edstica que s\u00ed est\u00e1 relacionada con el crecimiento econ\u00f3mico es un buen gobierno. Un gobierno que garantice los derechos de propiedad, que evite las barreras comerciales y otras distorsiones del mercado, incluyendo tasas impositivas y regulaciones excesivas. <strong>Por lo tanto, al evaluar un cambio de las fronteras internacionales, una cuesti\u00f3n clave desde el punto de vista econ\u00f3mico es si el nuevo gobierno ser\u00eda mejor o peor en t\u00e9rminos de crecimiento de la promoci\u00f3n de estos rasgos.<\/strong> En el caso de los pa\u00edses b\u00e1lticos, Croacia o Kurdist\u00e1n, no hay duda de que la secesi\u00f3n conducir\u00eda a un gobierno mejorado.<\/p>\n<p>Aunque pueda parecer un comentario desagradable sobre la naturaleza humana, un argumento central a la hora de definir un estado es la necesidad de mantener una poblaci\u00f3n bastante homog\u00e9nea dentro de sus fronteras. Si observamos los lugares donde los movimientos secesionistas suelen ocurrir, como Yugoslavia y la Uni\u00f3n Sovi\u00e9tica o en Espa\u00f1a y Canad\u00e1, veremos que la identidad juega un papel importante. Hay casos en que los gobiernos han conseguido gestionar m\u00e1s o menos exitosamente las diversidades \u00e9tnicas, como Suiza e incluso los EE.UU., pero los ejemplos de fracaso en este sentido son m\u00e1s numerosos que los de \u00e9xito<\/p>\n<p>La econom\u00eda pol\u00edtica explica algunos de los beneficios de tener una poblaci\u00f3n homog\u00e9nea dentro de un estado determinado. Si la diversidad es grande (diversidad medida decir, por ejemplo, por la desigualdad potencial de los ingresos), entonces hay un fuerte incentivo para que se gasten energ\u00edas en redistribuir la renta en lugar de producir bienes. En particular, <strong>una mayor dispersi\u00f3n de las caracter\u00edsticas constitutivas conduce a la creaci\u00f3n de grupos de inter\u00e9s que pasan su tiempo haciendo lobby ante el gobierno central para redistribuir los recursos a su favor<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p>Podemos pensar en el tama\u00f1o \u00f3ptimo de un pa\u00eds como el resultado de un \u201ctradeoff\u201d o compromiso: cuanto m\u00e1s grande es un pa\u00eds menores son los costos por persona de suministrar bienes p\u00fablicos (como el sistema legal y monetario, el mantenimiento de la seguridad nacional). Cuantos m\u00e1s contribuyentes seamos para pagar esos costos fijos, a menos nos toca a cada uno. Por otro lado, <strong>el problema de un pa\u00eds grande es que es probable que tenga una poblaci\u00f3n diversa y a la que un solo gobierno central pueda satisfacer. <\/strong><\/p>\n<p>La raz\u00f3n por la que los pa\u00edses peque\u00f1os funcionan razonablemente bien en la pr\u00e1ctica, es que el argumento de los bienes p\u00fablicos parece no ser muy importante. El gasto en defensa en relaci\u00f3n al PIB, por ejemplo, no est\u00e1 correlacionado con el tama\u00f1o del pa\u00eds: si el argumento de los bienes p\u00fablicos fuera convincente, los pa\u00edses m\u00e1s grandes tender\u00edan a gastar menos en defensa como porcentaje del PIB cosa que no es verdad. Sin duda,<strong> es ineficiente que los estados soberanos sean demasiado peque\u00f1os, pero el tama\u00f1o m\u00ednimo para un estado viable no parece ser muy grande<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Autodeterminaci\u00f3n<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>La conclusi\u00f3n es que la separaci\u00f3n pol\u00edtica es a veces una buena idea: Los beneficios pueden compensar las p\u00e9rdidas, incluso despu\u00e9s de a\u00f1adir los costos de la transici\u00f3n del cambio de fronteras. Por lo general, se puede juzgar si los beneficios del cambio superan los costes bas\u00e1ndose en la auto-determinaci\u00f3n. Al fin y al cabo, la mayor\u00eda de los costos de los cambios de gobierno y de las instituciones que establecen son asumidos por los secesionistas. Eso quiere decir que <strong>si una clara mayor\u00eda de los residentes en un \u00e1rea indica su deseo de ser independiente, entonces seguro que los beneficios superan los costos.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>***<\/p>\n<p>Sr. Barro, un editor de Wall Street Diario contribuyente, es profesor de econom\u00eda en Harvard.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p> <strong><br clear=\"all\" \/> <\/strong> <\/p>\n<h2>SMALL IS BEAUTIFUL<\/h2>\n<p>On October 11, 1991, the Wall Street Journal published a beautiful article by Robert Barro on the size of nations. Although this was a newspaper article, it became a really influential article as it turned out to be the seminal work on which the literature on the \u00aboptimal size of nations\u00bb grew. Alesina and Spolaore&#8217;s paper (\u00abThe Size of Nations\u00bb) is a direct descendant of Barro&#8217;s. Alesina was and still is a colleague of Barro&#8217;s at Harvard.<\/p>\n<p>Robert Barro is one of the most influential macroeconomists in history. He is the most cited economist in the world among economists not yet with a Nobel Prize.<\/p>\n<p>And, for the record and for those who accuse analysts to lose their senses and their ability to reason when they speak about Catalonia, Robert Barro is not Catalan.<\/p>\n<p>\u00a0<\/p>\n<p>BY ROBERT J. BARRO<\/p>\n<p>The U.S. government is instinctively opposed to secession. It has not supported the Kurds in Iraq, the Croats in Yugoslavia the Ibos in Nigeria or the Quebecers in Canada. We were pretty much the last major country to sign on to sovereignty for the Baltic states, and we have not endorsed the independence movements of any of the other Soviet republics.<\/p>\n<p>There seem to be two main reasons for this opposition. The first is the potential trouble from changing borders. Even borders that were drawn in an arbitrary manner sometime in the past-such as in Yugoslavia, Iraq and much of Africa-may reasonably be defended because the process of change involves disruptions, possibly including armed conflict. Of course, the attempt to maintain unsatisfactory boundaries may cause even more disruption.<\/p>\n<p>The intense opposition of the U.S. government to secession also reflects the specifics of American history. The U.S. Civil War-by far the most costly conflict ever fought by Americans-was waged primarily to maintain the union. The war caused more than 600,000 military fatalities and an unknown number of civilian deaths, and severely damaged the southern economy. Per-capita income in the South fell from about 80% of the northern level before the war (using the sketchy data available for 1840 ) to about 40% after the war (based on the more complete data for 1880 ). The fall in per-capita income reflected the destruction of capital-plant and equipment, livestock and educated labor-and the end of the plantation system based on forced labor.<\/p>\n<h5>War&#8217;s True Cost<\/h5>\n<p>Although only the first part of the fall in measured per-capita income represents a true cost of the war, the overall setback to the economy was striking: It took more than a century after the war&#8217;s end in 1865 for Southern per-capita income to reattain 80% of the Northern level. This rate of convergence of the poor South to the rich North may seem slow, but the pace is typical of regional growth processes observed in other times and places.<\/p>\n<p>If the U.S. government were to support the right of secession in some other part of the world, such as the Soviet Union, then it might seem indirectly to be challenging the basic premise of the Civil War. Why is it desirable for Soviet republics to have the right to secession when it was undesirable for U.S. states to have the same rights? We would then force ourselves to reconsider whether the enormous cost of the Civil War was worth it. Instead of being the greatest of American presidents, as many people believe, Abraham Lincoln may instead have presided over the largest error in American history.<\/p>\n<p align=\"center\">* * *<\/p>\n<p>Everyone would have been better off if the elimination of slavery had been accomplished by buying off the slaveowners -as the British did in the West Indies in the 1830s-instead of fighting the war.<\/p>\n<p>Whether the blacks would have been better or worse off if the North had accepted the secession of the South requires a forecast of how the institution of slavery would have fared in an independent South. Some relevant information is that slavery was abolished without war in the other parts of the Western hemisphere where it had existed (except for Haiti in the 1790s ) and that the last country to act, Brazil, began the process in 1871 and finished it in 1888. Thus, the experience of the rest of the hemisphere suggests that slavery in the U.S. south would have been eliminated peacefully in not very many years.<\/p>\n<p>If we put the experience of the Civil War behind us and also abstract from the transitional problems of redrawing borders-that is, the stability issue-then the evaluation of a secession depends on whether, starting from scratch, reasonable borders would have been drawn very differently from those that currently prevail. Some of the arguments that have been used in this context to criticize the breakup of states are wrong.<\/p>\n<p>For example,<strong> it is often said that a potential new state is too small to be economically viable: Soviet Georgia or Croatia-or Quebec or Catalonia-could not make it on its own. The empirical evidence about the economic growth of countries conflicts sharply with this view<\/strong>. There is no relation between the growth or level of per-capita income and the size of a country, whether measured by population or area. Small countries, even with populations of as little as a million, can perform well economically, as long as they remain open to international trade. In fact, smallness tends to encourage openness because the alternative really would be a nonviable economy.<\/p>\n<p>A related specious argument is that <strong>a state cannot prosper if it lacks a key natural resource, such as oil or fertile land. The experience with economic growth across countries reveals little relation between economic performance and the presence of natural resources<\/strong>. Japan and the Asian tigers, as well as most of Western Europe, have done fine without domestic sources of oil. With access to international markets, a country can specialize in what it does well and then trade its goods for the commodities, such as oil or agricultural products, that it lacks domestically. A characteristic that does promote economic growth is good government in the sense of maintenance of property rights, avoidance of trade barriers and absence of other market distortions including excessive tax rates and regulations. Thus, in evaluating a change of international borders, a key issue from an economic standpoint is whether the new government would be better or worse in terms of these growth promoting traits. In the case of the Baltics, Croatia or Kurdistan, there is little question that secession would lead to improved government.<\/p>\n<p>Although it may be an unpleasant commentary on human nature, a central driving force in defining a state is the desire to have a reasonably homogeneous population within its borders. It is clear from observing the places where secessionist movements tend to occur, such as Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union or Spain and Canada, that ethnic identity is a central driving force. There are cases in which governments have dealt more or less successfully with sharp ethnic diversities, such as Switzerland and even the U.S., but problems are easier to pinpoint than triumphs.<\/p>\n<p>Political economy explains some of the benefits from having a homogeneous population within a given state. If diversity is great&#8211;measured say by the inequality in potential earnings-then there is a strong incentive for people to spend their energies in efforts to redistribute income rather than to produce goods. In particular, a greater dispersion of constituent characteristics leads to the creation of interest groups that spend their time lobbying the central government to redistribute resources in their favor.<\/p>\n<p>We can think of a country&#8217;s optimal size as emerging from a tradeoff: A large country can spread the cost of public goods, such as defining a legal and monetary system and maintaining national security, over many taxpayers, but a large country is also likely to have a diverse population that is difficult for the central government to satisfy. <strong>The reason that small countries perform reasonably well in practice is that the public-goods argument may not be so important<\/strong>. For instance, a larger country has more property to protect from foreign aggressors and therefore requires larger outlays for national defense than a small country. Empirically, the ratio of defense expenditures to gross national product is uncorrelated with the size of the country: <strong>If the public-goods argument were compelling, then larger countries would tend to spend less on defense as a share of GNP<\/strong>. No doubt, <strong>it is inefficient for sovereign states to be too small, but the minimum size for a viable state seems not to be very great.<\/strong><\/p>\n<h5>Self-Determination<\/h5>\n<p>The bottom line is that political separation is sometimes a good idea: The benefits can outweigh the losses, including the transitional costs of changing borders. We can usually judge whether the benefits from change exceed the costs by relying on self-determination. After all, most of the costs from changing governments and establishing institutions are borne by the secessionists&#8211;<strong>if a clear majority of residents in an area indicates their desire to become independent, then they are saying that the benefits exceed the costs.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p align=\"center\">* * *<\/p>\n<p>Mr. Barro, a Wall Street Journal contributing editor, is a professor of economics at Harvard.<\/p>\n<p><a title=\"Wall Street Journal\" href=\"http:\/\/europe.wsj.com\/home-page\">http:\/\/europe.wsj.com\/home-page<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>El 11 de octubre de 1991, el Wall Street Journal public\u00f3 un hermoso art\u00edculo de Robert Barro sobre el tama\u00f1o de las naciones. Aunque se trataba de un art\u00edculo de prensa, se convirti\u00f3 en un art\u00edculo muy influyente, ya que result\u00f3 ser la obra fundamental sobre el que la literatura sobre el \u00abtama\u00f1o \u00f3ptimo de [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[79],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-27269","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-nabarmena"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.7 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Small is Beautiful - Lo Peque\u00f1o es Hermoso - Nabarralde<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Robert Barro es uno de los macroeconomistas m\u00e1s influyentes de la historia. \u00c9l es el economista m\u00e1s citado del mundo entre los economistas que a\u00fan no tienen el Premio Nobel.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/nabarralde.eus\/es\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"es_ES\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Small is Beautiful - Lo Peque\u00f1o es Hermoso - Nabarralde\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Robert Barro es uno de los macroeconomistas m\u00e1s influyentes de la historia. \u00c9l es el economista m\u00e1s citado del mundo entre los economistas que a\u00fan no tienen el Premio Nobel.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/nabarralde.eus\/es\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Nabarralde\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/nabarraldefundazioa\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2012-10-01T06:17:48+00:00\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Nabarralde\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@Nabarralde\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@Nabarralde\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Escrito por\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Robert Barro\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Tiempo de lectura\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"16 minutos\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\\\/\\\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/nabarralde.eus\\\/es\\\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\\\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/nabarralde.eus\\\/es\\\/small-is-beautiful-lo-pequeno-es-hermoso\\\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Nabarralde\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/nabarralde.eus\\\/#\\\/schema\\\/person\\\/597064be2999f8f5251a2dd9bd90ac56\"},\"headline\":\"Small is Beautiful &#8211; 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